Table 2 Major findings of the studies investigating the role of E. coli infection in the pathogenesis of primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC)

Clinical

Women with PBC have more frequently recurrent urinary tract infections (UTI) compared to women with other liver diseases

[88–91]

Epidemiological

Large-scale epidemiological studies have shown that UTI is an independent risk factor associated with PBC

[112, 113, 127]

A history of UTI precedes the development of PBC for several years

[129]

Immunological

Women with recurrent UTI have, but without evidence of liver involvement, have detectable AMA and PBC-specific ANA

[80, 89]

E. coli mimics and human PDC-E2 are cross-recognised by antibodies and T cells of patients with PBC

[66, 84, 85]

Animal studies

Recurrent E. coli infection can induce in animals the production of AMA and histological features compatible with PBC

[156]